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Oktober 16, 2009

phonetic


Phonetics
Phonetics (from the Greek: φωνή, phōnē, "sound, voice", pronounced /fɵˈnɛtɨks/) is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human speech.[1] It is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds (phones), and their physiological production, auditory perception, and neurophysiological status.
Phonetics was studied as early as 2500 years ago in ancient India, with Pāṇini's account of the place and manner of articulation of consonants in his 5th century BC treatise on Sanskrit. The major Indic alphabets today order their consonants according to Pāṇini's classification.
Phonetics, the study of the sounds of human speech, is one area of specialization within the field of linguistics. Unlike semantics, which deals with the meaning of words, phonetics is focused exclusively on the properties of speech sounds and their production.
About Phonetics
Within phonetics, there are three main areas of analysis:
Auditory Phonetics: The study of speech perception and how the brain forms perceptual representations of the input it receives during the course of communication
Articulatory Phonetics: The study of the positions and movements of the lips, tongue, vocal tract, and other speech organs
Acoustic Phonetics: The study of the properties of the sound waves and how they are perceived by the inner ear
Although phonetics might seem like a relatively obscure area of study, it has a surprisingly long history. Approximately 2,500 years ago, ancient Indian grammarian Panini documented the articulation of consonants in his treatise on the Sanskrit language.
A working knowledge of phonetics is useful even if you're not planning a career as a linguist. Speech therapists use phonetics to help people suffering from communication disorders learn to improve their spoken language skills. Foreign language teachers often incorporate phonetics as a tool to show their students how speech sounds are similar across different languages. Singers and actors use phonetics when they must replicate the speech styles of various characters in their daily work.
The International Phonetic Alphabet
As you might expect, studying the sounds of spoken language presents many unique challenges. To make it easier to represent speech sounds in written documents, researchers use the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Based on the Latin alphabet, the IPA was created by the International Phonetic Association as a standardized representation of the sounds of spoken language. The IPA is unique in that it is independent of any particular language and applicable to all languages.
In 2007, the IPA contained 107 distinct letters with 56 additional diacritics and suprasegmentals in the IPA proper. However, symbols are occasionally added, modified, or removed by the consensus of the International Phonetic Association.
Symbols within the IPA represent the separation of words and syllables, as well as phonemes and intonation. Recording distinctive speech qualities, such as lisping or speaking with a cleft palate, requires the use of extra symbols included in the Extended IPA for disordered speech.


Transcription
Main article: Phonetic transcription
Phonetic transcription is a universal system for transcribing sounds that occur in spoken language. The most widely known system of phonetic transcription, the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), uses a one-to-one mapping between phones and written symbols.[2][3] The standardized nature of the IPA enables its users to transcribe accurately and consistently the phones of different languages, dialects, and idiolects.[2][4][5] The IPA is a useful tool not only for the study of phonetics, but also for language teaching, professional acting, and speech pathology.[6]
Subfields
Phonetics as a research discipline has three main branches:
articulatory phonetics is concerned with the articulation of speech: The position, shape, and movement of articulators or speech organs, such as the lips, tongue, and vocal folds.
acoustic phonetics is concerned with acoustics of speech: The properties of the sound waves, such as their frequency and harmonics.
auditory phonetics is concerned with speech perception: How speech sounds are categorized, recognized, and interpreted by the auditory apparatus and the brain.
Applications
Application of phonetics include:
forensic phonetics: the use of phonetics (the science of speech) for forensic (legal) purposes.
Speech Recognition: the analysis and transcription of recorded speech by a computer system.
Relation to phonology
In contrast to phonetics, phonology is the study of how sounds and gestures pattern in and across languages, relating such concerns with other levels and aspects of language. Phonetics deals with the articulatory and acoustic properties of speech sounds, how they are produced, and how they are perceived. As part of this investigation, phoneticians may concern themselves with the physical properties of meaningful sound contrasts or the social meaning encoded in the speech signal (e.g. gender, sexuality, ethnicity, etc.). However, a substantial portion of research in phonetics is not concerned with the meaningful elements in the speech signal.
While phonology is grounded in phonetics, it is a distinct area of linguistics, treating sounds and gestural units as abstract units (e.g, phonemes, features, mora, etc.) and accounting for conditioned variation in the form of grammatical rules (e.g., allophonic rules, constraints, derivational rules).[7] Phonology relates to phonetics via the set of distinctive features, which relate the abstract representations of speech units to speech gestures or acoustic representations.
Phonology (from Ancient Greek: φωνή, phōnē, "voice, sound" and λόγος, lógos, "word, speech, subject of discussion") is the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken human language, or the field of linguistics studying this use. Just as a language has syntax and vocabulary, it also has a phonology in the sense of a sound system. When describing the formal area of study, the term typically describes linguistic analysis either beneath the word (e.g., syllable, onset and rhyme, phoneme, articulatory gesture, articulatory feature, mora, etc.) or to units at all levels of language that are thought to structure sound for conveying linguistic meaning. It is viewed as the subfield of linguistics that deals with the sound systems of languages. Whereas phonetics is about the physical production, acoustic transmission and perception of the sounds of speech, phonology describes the way sounds function within a given language or across languages to encode meaning. The term "phonology" was used in the linguistics of a greater part of the 20th century as a cover term uniting phonemics and phonetics. Current phonology can interface with disciplines such as psycholinguistics and speech perception, resulting in specific areas like articulatory or laboratory phonology.
An important part of traditional forms of phonology has been studying which sounds can be grouped into distinctive units within a language; these units are known as phonemes. For example, in English, the [p] sound in pot is aspirated (pronounced [pʰ]), while the word- and syllable-final [p] in soup is not aspirated (indeed, it might be realized as a glottal stop). However, English speakers intuitively treat both sounds as variations (allophones) of the same phonological category, that is, of the phoneme /p/. Traditionally, it would be argued that if a word-initial aspirated [p] were interchanged with the word-final unaspirated [p] in soup, they would still be perceived by native speakers of English as "the same" /p/. (However, speech perception findings now put this theory in doubt.) Although some sort of "sameness" of these two sounds holds in English, it is not universal and may be absent in other languages. For example, in Thai, Hindi, and Quechua, aspiration and non-aspiration differentiates phonemes: that is, there are word pairs that differ only in this feature (there are minimal pairs differing only in aspiration).
In addition to the minimal units that can serve the purpose of differentiating meaning (the phonemes), phonology studies how sounds alternate, i.e. replace one another in different forms of the same morpheme (allomorphs), as well as, e.g., syllable structure, stress, accent, and intonation.
The principles of phonological theory have also been applied to the analysis of sign languages, even though the sub-lexical units are not instantiated as speech sounds. The principles of phonological analysis can be applied independently of modality because they are designed to serve as general analytical tools, not language-specific ones. On the other hand, it must be noted, it is difficult to analyze phonologically a language one does not speak, and most phonological analysis takes place with recourse to phonetic information.
Phonetics
Jump to:
Vowels
Consonants
Diphthongs
Other symbols
By default, phonetics are not displayed in dictionary entries. To enable them, check the 'Display phonetics' box when you perform your search.
Note: The phonetics feature is currently only available within the following dictionaries:
Cambridge Learner's Dictionary
Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary
Cambridge Dictionary of American English
Vowels
Long Vowels

sheep

farm

coo

horse

bird
Short Vowels

ship

head

hat

above

foot

mother (US)

sock (UK)

worm (US)

cup



Consonants
Voiced

book

day

give

very

the

zoo

vision

jump

look

run

yes

we

moon

name

sing
Voiceless

pen

town

cat

fish

think

say

she

cheese
Diphthongs

day

eye

boy

mouth

nose (UK)

nose (US)

ear (UK)

hair (UK)

pure (UK)





Other Symbols






, , can be pronounced either: or , etc.:

= or

linking r is pronounced only before a vowel in British English:

:
four : four apples


main stress

expectation

secondary stress

retell

syllable division

system




Phonetic Alphabets
These are not phonetic alphabets as in those used to guide pronounciation, rather they are a selection of alphabets used, particularly by radio operators, to spell out words.
Brian Kelk has the most comprehensive list available and many of the alphabets listed here come from his collection. I found John Higgins' Silent Alphabet amusing.
Phonetic Alphabets of the World
Letter


PHONETICS:

The Sounds of Language

When you know language you know the sounds of that language, and you know how to combine those sounds into words. When you know English, you know the sounds represented by the letters b, s, and u, and you are able to combine them to form the words bus or sub. Although languages may contain different sound, the sound of all languages of the world together institute a class of sounds that the human vocal tract is designed to make.

According to Crystal (1980:267), phonetics is the science which studies the characteristic of human sound-making, especially those sounds in speech, and provided methods for their description, classification and transcription. Three branches of the subject are generally recognized: (1) articulatory phonetics is the study of the way of speech sounds are made (articulated) by the vocal organs: (2) acoustic phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear: (3) auditory phonetics studies the perceptual response to speak sounds,

apa itu ponologi

I. Apa itu fonologi?
Fonologi adalah studi tentang sistem bunyi bahasa. Ini adalah sebuah daerah yang luas teori bahasa dan sulit untuk berbuat lebih banyak pada kursus bahasa umum daripada pengetahuan memiliki garis besar tentang apa yang termasuk. Dalam ujian, Anda mungkin akan diminta untuk mengomentari teks yang Anda lihat untuk pertama kalinya dalam berbagai bahasa deskripsi, yang mungkin menjadi salah satu fonologi. Pada satu ekstrem, fonologi berkaitan dengan anatomi dan fisiologi - organ-organ pembicaraan dan bagaimana kita belajar untuk menggunakannya. Pada ekstrem lain, fonologi nuansa ke sosio-linguistik seperti yang kita mempertimbangkan sikap sosial untuk fitur suara seperti aksen dan intonasi. Dan bagian dari subjek yang bersangkutan dengan tujuan menemukan cara-cara standar rekaman pidato, dan mewakili secara simbolis ini.
Untuk beberapa jenis studi - mungkin sebuah penyelidikan bahasa ke dalam perkembangan fonologi anak kecil atau variasi regional dalam aksen, Anda akan perlu menggunakan transkripsi fonetik untuk menjadi kredibel. Tetapi hal ini tidak perlu di semua jenis studi - dalam ujian, Anda mungkin prihatin dengan efek gaya suara di iklan atau sastra, seperti asonansi, sajak atau Onomatope - dan Anda tidak perlu menggunakan simbol fonetik khusus untuk melakukan hal ini .
Sistem fonologis bahasa mencakup.
• inventarisasi suara dan fitur mereka, dan
• aturan yang menentukan bagaimana suara berinteraksi satu sama lain.
Fonologi hanyalah salah satu dari beberapa aspek bahasa. Hal ini terkait dengan aspek-aspek lain seperti fonetik, morfologi, sintaksis, dan pragmatik.
Berikut adalah sebuah ilustrasi yang menunjukkan tempat fonologi dalam berinteraksi tingkat hierarki dalam linguistik:

II. Fisika dan fisiologi pidato
Manusia dibedakan dari primata lain dengan memiliki aparat untuk membuat suara pidato. Tentu saja sebagian besar dari kita belajar untuk berbicara tanpa pernah tahu banyak tentang organ-organ ini, kecuali dalam samar-samar dan pengertian umum - sehingga kita tahu bagaimana flu atau sakit tenggorokan mengubah kinerja kita sendiri. Bahasa ilmuwan memiliki pemahaman yang sangat rinci tentang bagaimana tubuh manusia menghasilkan suara pidato. Pergi ke satu sisi subjek yang luas mengenai bagaimana kita memilih ucapan-ucapan tertentu dan mengidentifikasi suara kita butuhkan, kita dapat berpikir lebih sederhana mengenai bagaimana kita menggunakan paru-paru untuk bernapas keluar udara, menghasilkan getaran dalam laring dan kemudian menggunakan lidah, gigi dan bibir untuk memodifikasi suara. Diagram di bawah menunjukkan beberapa pidato yang lebih penting organ.
Diagram seperti ini membantu kita untuk memahami apa yang kita amati pada orang lain tetapi kurang berguna dalam memahami pembicaraan kita sendiri. Para ilmuwan sekarang dapat menempatkan kamera kecil ke dalam mulut subyek eksperimental, dan mengamati beberapa gerakan fisik yang menyertai pidato. Tapi kebanyakan dari kita menggerakkan organ-organ vokal oleh refleks atau rasa suara kita ingin memproduksi, dan tidak mungkin manfaat dari gerakan menonton di lipatan vokal.
Diagram adalah penampang disederhanakan melalui kepala manusia - yang kita tidak bisa melihat dalam kenyataan dalam hidup pembicara, walaupun mungkin simulasi pelajaran. Tapi kita mengamati beberapa tanda-tanda eksternal bunyi ujaran terlepas dari apa yang kita dengar.

Beberapa orang memiliki kemampuan untuk menafsirkan sebagian besar ucapan-ucapan seorang pembicara dari bibir-membaca. Tetapi lebih banyak lagi memiliki rasa ketika bibir-gerakan atau tidak sesuai dengan apa yang kita dengar - kita menyadari ini ketika kita menonton sebuah film dengan dialog dijuluki, atau siaran TV di mana suara tidak disinkronkan dengan apa yang kita lihat.
Diagram juga dapat berguna dalam kaitannya dengan deskripsi dari suara - misalnya menunjukkan di mana aliran udara yang terbatas untuk menghasilkan frikatif, baik di langit-langit, alveolar ridge, gigi atau gigi dan bibir bersama-sama.
Speech terapis memiliki kerja yang sangat rinci pengetahuan tentang manusia fisiologi pidato, dan latihan dan obat untuk mengatasi kesulitan sebagian dari kita jumpai dalam berbicara, tempat ini memiliki penyebab fisik. Pemahaman tentang anatomi juga berguna untuk berbagai macam ahli yang melatih orang untuk menggunakan suara mereka dalam cara yang khusus atau tidak biasa. Ini akan mencakup suara menyanyi guru dan pelatih untuk aktor, serta bahkan lebih khusus pelatih yang melatih aktor untuk menghasilkan suara pidato varietas asing sampai sekarang bahasa Inggris atau bahasa lainnya. Pada tingkat yang lebih mendasar, saya guru di sekolah Perancis bersikeras bahwa kami (murid-muridnya) dapat menghasilkan suara vokal tertentu hanya dengan mulut kita lebih terbuka daripada kita akan merasa perlu untuk melakukan ketika berbicara bahasa Inggris. Dan kaku bibir atas secara harfiah adalah sangat membantu jika seseorang ingin meniru suara pidato Ratu Elizabeth II.
Jadi apa yang terjadi? Biasanya kita menggunakan udara yang bergerak keluar dari paru-paru (pulmonal egressive udara) untuk berbicara. Kita mungkin menghentikan sebentar bernapas dalam, atau mencoba menggunakan ingressive udara - tetapi ini mungkin menghasilkan pidato yang tenang, yang jelas pendengar kita. (David Crystal catatan bagaimana seimbang biasanya siklus pernapasan diubah oleh pidato, sehingga kita hirup perlahan-lahan, dengan menggunakan udara untuk berbicara, dan bernapas dengan cepat, dalam rangka untuk terus berbicara). Dalam bahasa lain selain bahasa Inggris, pembicara juga dapat menggunakan pulmonal non-suara, seperti klik (ditemukan di Afrika Selatan) atau glottalic suara-suara (ditemukan di seluruh dunia). Dalam pangkal tenggorokan, yang vokal lipatan mendirikan egressive getaran di udara. Udara getar melewati rongga lebih lanjut yang dapat memodifikasi suara dan akhirnya yang diartikulasikan oleh pasif (tak bergerak) artikulator-artikulator - langit-langit mulut yang keras, alveolar ridge dan gigi atas - dan yang aktif (mobile) artikulator-artikulator. Ini adalah faring, yang velum (atau langit-langit lunak), rahang dan gigi lebih rendah, bibir dan, di atas semua, lidah. Hal ini sangat penting dan sangat fleksibel organ, bahwa bahasa ilmuwan mengidentifikasi daerah berbeda lidah berdasarkan nama, karena ini terkait dengan suara tertentu. Bekerja ke luar ini adalah:
• bagian belakang - yang berlawanan dengan langit-langit lunak
• pusat - yang berlawanan dengan titik pertemuan keras dan langit-langit lunak
• depan - berlawanan dengan langit-langit keras
• pisau - daerah yang runcing menghadap punggung gigi
• ujung - ujung ekstrem lidah
Pertama ketiga (belakang, tengah dan depan) yang dikenal bersama sebagai dorsum (yang dalam bahasa Latin untuk "tulang punggung" atau "tulang punggung")
III. Models of fonologi
Model yang berbeda memberikan kontribusi fonologi pengetahuan kita tentang fonologi representasi dan proses:
• Dalam fonemik klasik, fonem dan kemungkinan kombinasi yang sentral.
• Dalam fonologi generatif standar, fitur khas pusat. Sebuah aliran pidato digambarkan sebagai urutan linier diskrit suara-segmen. Setiap segmen terdiri dari fitur yang terjadi secara simultan.
• Dalam model non-linear dari fonologi, aliran pidato direpresentasikan sebagai multidimensional, bukan hanya sebagai urutan linier segmen suara. Ini model non-linear tumbuh dari fonologi generatif:













1.1. Fonetik

Menurut urutan proses terjadinya:

Fonetik artikulatoris

Fonetik akustik

Fonetik auditoris

1. Fonetik artikulatoris disebut juga fonetik organis/fonetik fisiologis

Mempelajari bagaimana mekanisme alat-alat bicara manusia bekerja dalam menghasilkan bunyi bahasa serta bagaimana bunyi-bunyi itu diklasifikasikan. Dan fonetik artikulatoris adalah jenis fonetik yang paling berurusan dengan dunia linguistik karena fonetik ini berkenaan dengan masalah bagaimana bunyi-bunyi bahasa itu dihasilkan atau diucapkan manusia.

2. Fonetik akustik memperlajari bunyi bahasa sebagai peristiwa fisis atau fenomena alam. Bunyi-bunyi itu diselidiki frekuensi getarannya, amplitudonya, intensitasnya dan timbrenya. Dan fonetik akustik ini lebih berkenaan dengan bidang fisika.

3. Fonetik auditoris mempelajari bagaimana mekanisme penerimaan bunyi bahasa itu oleh telinga kita. Dan fonetik auditoris ini lebih berkenaan dengan bidang kedokteran yaitu neurologi, meskipun tidak tertutup kemungkinan linguistik yang juga bekerja dalam kedua bidang fonetik itu.

1.1.1. Alat Ucap

Dalam fonetik artikulatoris hal pertama yang dibicarakan adalah alat ucap manusia yang menghasilkan bunyi bahasa. Sebenarnya alat ucap itu juga memiliki fungsi utama lain yang bersifat biologis. Bunyi-bunyi yang terjadi pada alat-alat ucap itu biasanya diberi nama sesuai dengan alat ucap itu namun disesuaikan dengan nama latinnya, misalnya:

Pangkal tenggorokan (larynx) – laringal

Rongga kerongkongan (pharynx) – faringal

Pangkal lidah (dorsum) – dorsal

Tengah lidah (medium) – medial

Daun lidah (laminum) – laminal

Ujung lidah (apex) – apikal

Anak tekak (uvula) – uvular

Langit-langit lunak (velum)

Langit-langit keras (palatum)

Gusi (alveolum) – alveolar

Gigi (dentum) – dental

Bibir (labium) – labial

Selanjutnya sesuai dengan bunyi bahasa itu dihasilkan, maka harus kita gabungkan istilah dari dua nama alat ucap itu. Misalnya, bunyi apikodental yang gabungan antara ujung lidah dengan gigi atas.

1.1.2. Proses Fonasi

Terjadinya bunyi bahsa pada umumnya dimulai dengan proses pemompaan udara keluar dari paru-paru melalui pangkal tenggorok ke pangkal tenggorok yang di dalamnya terdapat pita suara. Supaya udara bisa keluar, maka pita suara harus dalam keadaan terbuka.

Adanya empat macam pita suara yang berposisi yaitu (a) pita suara terbuka lebar, (b) pita suara terbuka agak lebar (c) pita suara terbuka sedikit, (d) pita suara tertutup rapat-rapat. Proses terjadinya bunyi bahasa disebut proses artikulasi dan alatnya disebut artikulator. Artikulator aktif adalah alat ucap yang digerakkan. Striktur adalah keadaan, cara atau posisi bertemunya artikulator aktif dan pasif. Hasil satu proses artikulasi adalah bunyi tunggal atau bisa juga bunyi ganda. Labialisasi dilakukan dengan membulatkan bentuk mulut. Palatilisasi dilakukan dengan menaikkan bagian depan lidah. Velarisasi dilakukan dengan cara menaikkan belakang lidah ke arah langit-langit lunak. Faringalisasi dilakukan dengan cara menarik lidah ke arah belakang ke dinding faring.

1.1.3. Tulisan Fonetik

Tulisan yang dibuat untuk studi fonetik biasanya menggunakan aksara latin dengan menambahkan tanda diakritik dan modifikasi pada huruf latin itu. Dalam tulisan fonetik setiap huruf atau lambang hanya digunakan untuk melambangkan satu bunyi bahasa.

Dalam tulisan fonetik setiap bunyi dilambangkan secara akurat artinya mempunyai lambang sendiri, sedangkan dalam tulisan fonemik hanya perbedaan bunyi yang signitif saja yakni membedakan makna, lambangnya pun berbeda. Dan tulisan ortografi adalah tulisan yang umum ada dalam masyarakat.

1.1.4. Klasifikasi Bunyi

Pada umumnya bunyi bahasa dibedakan atas vokal dan konsonan. Bunyi vokal dihasilkan dengan pita suara terbuka sedikit. Bunyi konsonan terjadi setelah arus udara melewati pita suara yang terbuka sedikit atau agak lebar. Jadi, beda terjadinya bunyi vokal dan konsonan adalah arus udara dalam pembentukan bunyi vokal, setelah melewati pita suara tidak mendapat hambatan apa-apa sedangkan dalam pembentukan bunyi konsonan arus udara itu masih mendapat hambatan atau gangguan.

1. Klasifikasi Vokal

Bunyi vokal biasanya diklasifikasikan dan diberi nama berdasarkan posisi lidah dan bentuk mulut. Posisi lidah bisa bersifat vertikal bisa bersifat horizontal. Secara vertikal dibedakan adanya vokal tinggi (I dan u), vokal tengah (e dan o) dan vokal rendah (a). Secara horizontal dibedakan adanya vokal depan (i dan e), vokal pusat (ә), dan vokal belakang (u dan o).

2. Diftong dan Vokal Rangkap

Disebut diftong atau vokal rangkap karena posisi lidah ketika memproduksi bunyi ini pada bagian awalnya dan bagian akhirnya tidak sama. Diftong sering dibedakan berdasarkan letak atau posisi unsur-unsurnya, sehingga dibedakan adanya diftong naik dan diftong turun. Diftong naik atau diftong turun ditentukan berdasarkan kenyaringan (sonoritas) bunyi itu.

3. Klasifikasi Konsonan

Bunyi konsonan dibedakan berdasarkan tiga patokan atau kriteria yaitu posisi pita suara, tempat artikulasi, dan cara artikulasi. Sedangkan berdasarkan posisi pita suara dibedakan adanya bunyi bersuara dan tak bersuara.

Berdasarkan tempat artikulasinya, konsonan dibedakan menjadi:

a. Bilabial yaitu konsonan yang terjadi pada kedua belah bibir (b, p, m)

b. Labiodental yaitu konsonan yang terjadi pada gigi bawah dan gigi atas (f, v)

c. Laminoalveolar yaitu konsonan yang terjadi pada daun lidah dan gusi (t, d)

d. Dorsovelar yaitu konsonan yang terjadi pada pangkal lidah dan velum/langit (k, g)

Berdasarkan cara artikulasinya, konsonan dibedakan menjadi:

a. Lambat (letupan, plosif, stop) disini artikulator menurup sepenuhnya (p, b, t, d, k, g)

b. Geseran atau frikatif, disini artikulator aktif mendekati artikulatif pasif (f, s, z)

c. Paduan atau frikatif, disini artikulator aktif menghambat sepenuhnya aliran udara (c, j)

d. Sengaran atau nasal, disini artikulator menghambat sepenuhnya aliran udara melalui mulut (m, n, )

e. Getaran atau trill, disini artikulator aktif melakukan kontak beruntun dengan pasif (r)

f. Sampingan atau lateral, disini artikulator aktif menghmbar aliran udara pada bagian tengah mulut (l)

g. Hampiran atau aproksiman, disini artikulator aktif dan pasif membentuk ruang yang mendekati posisi terbuka seperti dalam pembentukan vokal (w, y).

1.1.5. Unsur Suprasegmental

Arus ujaran adalah suatu runtunan bunyi yang sambung menyambung dan yang dapat disegmentasikan disebut bunyi segmental, sedangkan yang berkaitan dengan keras lembut, panjang pendek dan jeda disebut suprasegmental atau prosodi.

1. Tekanan atau stres

Tekanan menyangkut masalah keras lunaknya bunyi dalam bahasa Inggris, tekanan bisa distingtif (dapat membedakan makna) tapi dalam bahasa Indonesia tidak.

2. Nada dan Pitch

Nada berkenaan dengan tinggi rendahnya suatu bunyi. Nada ini dalam bahasa-bahasa tertentu bisa bersifat fonemis maupun nonfonemis. Dalam bahasa-bahasa bernada atau tonal ini bersifat morfemis. Disini dikenal adanya lima macam nada:

Nada berkenaan dengan tinggi rendahnya suatu bunyi. Nada dalam bahasa-bahasa tertentu bisa bersifat fonemis maupun morfemis, tetapi ada juga yang tidak. Dalam bahasa tonal ada lima macam nada, yaitu:

a. Nada naik atau meninggi, tandanya/ . . . /

b. Nada datar, tandanya/ . . . /

c. Nada turun atau merendah, tandanya / . . . /

d. Nada turun naik, tandanya / . . . /

e. Nada naik turun, tandanya/ . . ./

3. Jeda atau Persendian

Jeda atau persendian berkenaan dengan hentian bunyi dalam arus ujar. Biasanya dibedakan atas sendi dalam/internal juncture (menunjukkan batas antara satu silabel dan silabel lain, biasanya diberi tanda (+) dan sendi luar/ open juncture (menunjukkan batas yang lebih besar dari silabel) biasanya dibedakan menjadi jeda antar kata dalam frase (/), jeda antar frase dalam klausa (//), jeda antar kalimat (#).

1.1.6. Silabel

Silabel atau suku kata adalah satuan ritmis terkecil dalam suatu arus ujaran atau runtutan bunyi ujaran. Yang dapat disebut bunyi silabis atau puncak silabis adalah bunyi vokal. Namun secara ritmis, sebuah konsonan juga dapat menjadi puncak silabis. Bunyi yang sekaligus dapat menjadi onset dan koda pada dua buah silabel yang berurutan disebut interlude. Dan onset adalah bunyi pertama pada sebuah silabel.

1. Beep Diphthong

Produced with the quality of the tongue position changes, up and down. According to Daniel Jones in Yulianto (1988:39) there are 3 kinds of diphthongs:

1. Rising diphthongs (rishing diphthong), occurs when the tongue rises when produced. As I say the first vowel is lower than the last vowel.

Diphthong / ai / at the beach, / au / in Receptions, / oi / in the breeze

2. Diphthongs falling (falling diphthong), as the tongue moves produce decreases. Not found in the Indonesian language, but in Javanese language.

Diphthong / ua / in uadoh (so far), / uє / on uenteng (very light), / uo / in duawa (very long), / uә / on guedhe (very large).

3. Diphthongs converged (centring diphthong), the tongue to the tongue to the position of the vocal produces medium-middle (center). There are in English. / iә / on the ear (ear), / ua / to the poor (poor), / єә / on there (there), / Oә / on the floor (floor)

4.

2. Classification of Consonants and Alofonnya

Consonants produced by blocking the air as pembentukanya. Consonant distinction is determined by three factors: the state of the vocal cords, the approach said equipment, and how articulation.

a. Based on the state of the vocal cords:

1. Consonant sound (voice consonant), the vocal cords vibrate. The vocal cords in a close and stretched, so that the resulting heavy sound .. voiced consonant phonemes / b /, / m /, / w /, / d /, / z /, / n /, / r /, / l /, / j /, / n /, / y /, / g / , and / ŋ /

2. Voiceless consonants (voiceless consonant), the vocal cords are weak in the resonance. Meranggang vocal cords, so that air easily enter.

Consonant / p /, / f /, / t /, / s /. / C /, / ś /, / k /, / x /,/?/, and / h /. Can be proved by way of closing the hole ears as saying.

b. Based on the area of articulation:

1. Bilabial consonants produced by bringing the lower lip upper lip. Consonant / p /, / b /, / m /, / w /.

2. Consonant labiodental, articulator is the lower lip (labium) with the teeth on the articulation point (thud). Consonants / f /, / v /

3. Apikodental consonants, resulting tip of the tongue (apex) with a thud (upper teeth). Consonant / n /, / t /, / d /

4. Apikoalveolar consonants, between the tip of the tongue with teeth curved legs (alveolum). Consonant / t /, / d /, / l /, / r /

5. Laminoalveolar consonants, the tongue leaves (laminae) alveolum touch. / z / and / s /

6. Palatal consonants, the tongue (the media) touched the palate (hard palate). Consonant / c /, / j /, / ś /, / y /, / n /

7. Velar consonants, the tongue (the dorsum) with vellum (soft palate). Consonant / k /, / g, / x /, /, and / ŋ /

8. Glottal consonant, glottis in keadaa narrow (closed). Consonant stop /? /, And / h /

c. Based on the way articulation

1. Obstruent (stop), which is produced by air currents tightly closed so that air immediately stopped, and then released suddenly. The first stage (closure) is called implosive, for example: / p / on the roof (implosif stop), and / p / on the nail (explosive)

Another stop the sound: / b /, / t /, / d /, / k /, / g /,/?/

2. Afrikatif consonant (choir), the sound produced by air currents sealed, then released gradually Seara. For example: / c /, / j /

3. Fricative consonant (sliding), the sound generated by the flow of air so that air can still flow out. For example: / f /, / v /, / s /, / z /, / s /, / x /

4. Consonant TRIL (vibration), by way of air currents closed dn repeatedly opened quickly. For example: / r /

5. Consonant lateral (side), by way of closing the air flow so that air can exit through one or both sides of the oral cavity. For example: / l /

6. nasal consonants (noses), air flow through the mouth tightly closed, so that the flow through the oral cavity. Eg / m /, / n /, / n /, and / ŋ /

3. Consonant clusters (cluster)

Consonant cluster or clusters is a row of two or more consonants that belong to a same syllable (Moelyono in Yulianto, 1988:55). Not all consonants can be inserted row clusters / clustering. In the creature / maXIU? / Not including the cluster, because these forms syllable is makh / max / and luk / Lu? /. While the word mantra including clusters because the tribe katanyta is comfortable and tra. / tr / natural single word.

Another Example: / pl / in a plastic, / g / in gra-FIK, / ns / trans-mi-gra-si / str / in stra-te-gi, / cur / on-the script, / sw / the self-la-yan, / dw / bi-functional on-si

4. The tribe and the pattern

Part syllable words spoken in one breath. General syllable consists of several phonemes. There is also the only consist of one phoneme. There is also a syllable that is not part of the word, meaning a word that only consists of one syllable. Such words are called monosilabik.

Always marked syllable of a vowel. Vowel syllables mark, the pronunciation is always reveal loudness / sonoritas. This is the peak vowel syllables. Consonant that precedes the vowel in a syllable is planted tribe (silaba onset) while the ending consonant vowel called koda tribe (koda silaba)

1. peak rate: i-bu

2. peak tribe + koda tribes: in-tan

3. planted tribe + peak interest: ti-pack

4. planted tribe + tribe + koda peak rate: per-gi

Syllable ends with a peak rate / vocals called open interest, while the ending syllable koda tribe / tribe called closing consonant.

Penyukuan pattern is not the same as beheading said. Penyukuan words associated with the word as a unit while the sounds of language related to the execution said the word as a unit of writing. Syllable pattern is typically marked with the symbol "V" and "K" which denote the vowels and consonants. Indonesian consonants can take the form:

1. a vowel (V): i-bu, i-a

2. one vowel and a consonant (VC): il-mu, ar-ti

3. a consonant and a vowel (KV): ar-ti, pak-sa

4. one consonant, one vowel and one consonant (KVK): per-lu, sa-lam

5. and the two consonants and one vowel (KKV): dra-ma

6. two consonants, one vowel and one consonant (KKVK): contract-tor

7. single consonant, a vowel, and two vowels (KVKK): text-til

8. three consonants and one vowel (KKKV): stra-te-gi

9. three consonants, one vowel and one consonant (KKKVK): the structure

10. two consonants, one vowel and two consonants (KKVKK): a complex

11. one consonant, one vowel and three consonants (KVKKK): corps

5. The sound of segmental and Suprasegmental

Segmental sounds refers to understanding the sounds that can disegmentasi / split. Said mature example, can be disegmentasi / m /, / a /, / t /, / a /, / n /, / g /. Sounds clearly shows the existence of phonemes. Thus, the actual language sounds that have been previously described segmental sounds.

While the sound can not be segmented suprasegmental-segmenkan because the presence of this noise is always accompanied, on top of, or accompany segmental sounds. The sound of suprasegmental grouped several aspects:

(a) the tone / pitch (high-low)

In the narrative voice is not functional / not distinguish the meaning. Spoken narrative musical, meaning the same as usual when spoken.

[I], [reading], [books] pronounced with any tone does not change the meaning.

(b) Pressure / accent

The pressure in the speech serves the purpose to distinguish the level of syntax (sentence), but does not distinguish levels of meaning in the word (leksis).

Word [writing] when spoken to first silaba [to] remain the same when spoken maknannya with emphasis on the second or third silaba. Tomorrow sentence different from my friends went to Surabaya, can mean five possibilities.

1. Tomorrow my friend went to Surabaya = means not today or yesterday

2. Tomorrow my friend went to Surabaya = mean not my brother or someone else

3. Tomorrow my friend went to Surabaya = my friend is not your friend

4. Tomorrow my friend went to Surabaya = really want to go

5. Tomorrow my friend went to Surabaya = go to Surabaya is not to another city

(b) duration

Not functional in the level of words. The word [fell] short or long pronounced in the first or second silaba same [ja: tuh] or [es: tu: h]

In penyagatan meaningful sentences. Watch out, falling [image: s / jatu: h], he was very caring to me

(c) Pause (silence)

This gap was more functional when compared with other suprasegmental.

1.a. Child / mischievous officials had dimejahijaukan = bad is the official

b.Anak officials who had been naughty naughty = dimejahijaukan the officials' children

2. a. He bought a book / history of the new new = history

b. He bought a book on the history / new = new book

In writing to distinguish opaque phrases meaning is given hyphen (-)

1.a. Child-officials who had been naughty dimejahijaukan

b. Children's officials have been naughty dimejahijaukan

2.a. He bought a new history book

b. He bought a new history book

(d) tone

In the study intonation, the sentence in the Indonesian language sentences can be divided into news / declarative, sentence asked / interrogative, and imperative / imperative

Declarative sentence intonation marked by flat-down. The house is now expensive

2 33 / 2 33 / 2 31, #

Interrogative sentence with a flat-rising intonation, expensive house now?

2 33 / 2 33 / 2 2-33, #

Imperative sentences with a high-level intonation. You are now here!

2 33 / 2 33 / 3 33, #

6. Phonemic

Phoneme is a unit of sound terkecel a language that serves to distinguish meaning. To find out, it should compare with other forms.

Linguistic form [bar] can be split into [p], [a], [l], [a], [n], [g]. fifth linguistic form has no meaning. If [p] is replaced with other forms, eg [m] on the poor, [d] the mastermind, and [g] on the shore, proved phonemes [p] serves to distinguish meaning.

Couple Fonemisasi and 6.1 Minimal

Is a procedure to find Fonemisasi phonemes in a language. Aimed at creating practical Fonemisasi spelling (orthography) of a language.

Fonemisasi stages: preparation (Arranging), comparisons (Comparing), and merging (combining).

For example in the words: raw, pocket books, new, and trays organized and compared, for example:

Raw raw raw raw

New book pocket tray

/ b / / s / / a / / u / / k / / r / / u / / i /

In the merger in the phoneme / b /, / s /, / a /, / u /, / i /, / k /, / r /.

Couple Minimal / minimal pairs is a set of words that have the same phoneme jumlag, also the same type of phonemes, except different phonemes in the same order, whereas a different meaning.

Example: round match data

coco father's chest?

funds b, p k,?

t, d, n

6.2 Distribution of Complementary and Free Variations

Sounds phonetically similar if complementary berdistribusi is a phoneme. Example: a / k / at the nail and / k / at maki phonetically identical Seara. The sound / k / the first classified as affected by the back velar vowel sound / u /, and the sound / k / a second front velar classified as affected vowel / i /. also on / y / at the and the.

Free variation are the sounds that are phonetically similar, if it can replace each other in a word and does not cause changes in meaning. This is a phoneme. This is in languages that have several dialects.

For example: egg patur fighting hole

priest holes eggs Joang

6.3 Phonemes and Phoneme Distribution

There are six vowel phonemes (monophthong) in Indonesian: / i /, / e /, / ә /, / u /, / a / and, / o /

There is a diphthong (double vowel), the / ay /, / aw, and / oy / and the consonants include: / y /, / w /, / l /, / p /, / b /, / f /, / m / , / t /, / d /, / c /, / j /, / s /, / z /, / r /, / n /, / n /, / ś /,/?/,/ k /, / g /, / X /, / ŋ /, and / h /

Case / f / and / y / in the second Indonesian spelling symbol / grapheme is used. However, the letter / grapheme that represents a phoneme, namely / f /. Such as written words or variations fariasi would not cause different meaning. Same with / q / and / k / is represented in a single phoneme / k /


Oktober 14, 2009

language and linguistic


Linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of natural language. In the philosophy of language, a natural language (or ordinary language) is any language which arises in an unpremeditated fashion as the result of the innate facility for language possessed by the human intellect. A natural language is typically used for communication, and may be spoken, signed, or written. Natural language is distinguished from constructed languages and formal languages such as computer-programming languages or the "languages" used in the study of formal logic, especially mathematical logic.
Today’s science of linguistics explores:
the sounds of speech and how different sounds function in a language
the psychological processes involved in the use of language
how children acquire language capabilities
social and cultural factors in language use, variation and change
the acoustics of speech and the physiological and psychological aspects involved in producing and understanding it
the biological basis of language in the brain
Linguistics encompasses a number of sub-fields. An important topical division is between the study of language structure (grammar) and the study of meaning (semantics and pragmatics). Grammar encompasses morphology (the formation and composition of words), syntax (the rules that determine how words combine into phrases and sentences) and phonology (the study of sound systems and abstract sound units). Phonetics is a related branch of linguistics concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds (phones), non-speech sounds, and how they are produced and perceived. Other sub-disciplines of linguistics include the following: evolutionary linguistics, which considers the origins of language; historical linguistics, which explores language change; sociolinguistics, which looks at the relation between linguistic variation and social structures; psycholinguistics, which explores the representation and functioning of language in the mind; neurolinguistics, which looks at the representation of language in the brain; language acquisition, which considers how children acquire their first language and how children and adults acquire and learn their second and subsequent languages; and discourse analysis, which is concerned with the structure of texts and conversations, and pragmatics with how meaning is transmitted based on a combination of linguistic competence, non-linguistic knowledge, and the context of the speech act.
Linguistics is narrowly defined as the scientific approach to the study of language, but language can, of course, be approached from a variety of directions, and a number of other intellectual disciplines are relevant to it and influence its study. Semiotics, for example, is a related field concerned with the general study of signs and symbols both in language and outside of it. Literary theorists study the use of language in artistic literature. Linguistics additionally draws on work from such diverse fields as psychology, speech-language pathology, informatics, computer science, philosophy, biology, human anatomy, neuroscience, sociology, anthropology, and acoustics.
Within the field, linguist is used to describe someone who either studies the field or uses linguistic methodologies to study groups of languages or particular languages. Outside the field, this term is commonly used to refer to people who speak many languages or have a great vocabulary.
History
History of linguistics
The historical record of linguistics begins in India with Pāṇini, the 5th century BCE grammarian who formulated 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology, known as the Aṣṭādhyāyī (अष्टाध्यायी) and with Tolkāppiyar, the 2nd century BCE grammarian of the Tamil work Tolkāppiyam(தொல்காப்பியம்).[9] Pāṇini’s grammar is highly systematized and technical. Inherent in its analytic approach are the concepts of the phoneme, the morpheme, and the root; Western linguists only recognized the phoneme some two millennia later.[citation needed] Tolkāppiyar's work is perhaps the first to describe articulatory phonetics for a language. Its classification of the alphabet into consonants and vowels, and elements like nouns, verbs, vowels, and consonants, which he put into classes, were also breakthroughs at the time. In the Middle East, the Persian linguist Sibawayh (سیبویه) made a detailed and professional description of Arabic in 760 CE in his monumental work, Al-kitab fi al-nahw (الكتاب في النحو, The Book on Grammar), bringing many linguistic aspects of language to light. In his book, he distinguished phonetics from phonology.
Later in the West, the success of science, mathematics, and other formal systems in the 20th century led many to attempt a formalization of the study of language as a "semantic code". This resulted in the academic discipline of linguistics, the founding of which is attributed to Ferdinand de Saussure.[citation needed] In the 20th century, substantial contributions to the understanding of language came from Ferdinand de Saussure, Hjelmslev, Émile Benveniste and Roman Jakobson,[10] which are characterized as being highly systematic.[10


Names for the discipline
Before the twentieth century, the term "philology", first attested in 1716, was commonly used to refer to the science of language, which was then predominantly historical in focus. Since Ferdinand de Saussure's insistence on the importance of synchronic analysis, however, this focus has shifted and the term "philology" is now generally used for the "study of a language's grammar, history and literary tradition," especially in the United States, where it was never as popular as it was elsewhere (in the sense of the "science of language").Although the term "linguist" in the sense of "a student of language" dates from 1641, the term "linguistics" is first attested in 1847. It is now the usual academic term in English for the scientific study of language.
Fundamental concerns and divisions
Linguistics concerns itself with describing and explaining the nature of human language. Relevant to this are the questions of what is universal to language, how language can vary, and how human beings come to know languages. All humans (setting aside extremely pathological cases) achieve competence in whatever language is spoken (or signed, in the case of signed languages) around them when growing up, with apparently little need for explicit conscious instruction. While non-humans acquire their own communication systems, they do not acquire human language in this way (although many non-human animals can learn to respond to language, or can even be trained to use it to a degree). Therefore, linguists assume, the ability to acquire and use language is an innate, biologically-based potential of modern human beings, similar to the ability to walk. There is no consensus, however, as to the extent of this innate potential, or its domain-specificity (the degree to which such innate abilities are specific to language), with some theorists claiming that there is a very large set of highly abstract and specific binary settings coded into the human brain, while others claim that the ability to learn language is a product of general human cognition. It is, however, generally agreed that there are no strong genetic differences underlying the differences between languages: an individual will acquire whatever language(s) he or she is exposed to as a child, regardless of parentage or ethnic origin.[11]
Linguistic structures are pairings of meaning and form; such pairings are known as Saussurean signs. In this sense, form may consist of sound patterns, movements of the hands, written symbols, and so on. There are many sub-fields concerned with particular aspects of linguistic structure, ranging from those focused primarily on form to those focused primarily on meaning:
Phonetics, the study of the physical properties of speech (or signed) production and perception
Phonology, the study of sounds (or signs) as discrete, abstract elements in the speaker's mind that distinguish meaning
Morphology, the study of internal structures of words and how they can be modified
Syntax, the study of how words combine to form grammatical sentences
Semantics, the study of the meaning of words (lexical semantics) and fixed word combinations (phraseology), and how these combine to form the meanings of sentences
Pragmatics, the study of how utterances are used in communicative acts, and the role played by context and non-linguistic knowledge in the transmission of meaning
Discourse analysis, the analysis of language use in texts (spoken, written, or signed)
Many linguists would agree that these divisions overlap considerably, and the independent significance of each of these areas is not universally acknowledged. Regardless of any particular linguist's position, each area has core concepts that foster significant scholarly inquiry and research.
Alongside these structurally-motivated domains of study are other fields of linguistics, distinguished by the kinds of non-linguistic factors that they consider:
Applied linguistics, the study of language-related issues applied in everyday life, notably language policies, planning, and education. (Constructed language fits under Applied linguistics.)
Biolinguistics, the study of natural as well as human-taught communication systems in animals, compared to human language.
Clinical linguistics, the application of linguistic theory to the field of Speech-Language Pathology.
Computational linguistics, the study of computational implementations of linguistic structures.
Developmental linguistics, the study of the development of linguistic ability in individuals, particularly the acquisition of language in childhood.
Evolutionary linguistics, the study of the origin and subsequent development of language by the human species.
Historical linguistics or diachronic linguistics, the study of language change over time.
Language geography, the study of the geographical distribution of languages and linguistic features.
Linguistic typology, the study of the common properties of diverse unrelated languages, properties that may, given sufficient attestation, be assumed to be innate to human language capacity.
Neurolinguistics, the study of the structures in the human brain that underlie grammar and communication.
Psycholinguistics, the study of the cognitive processes and representations underlying language use.
Sociolinguistics, the study of variation in language and its relationship with social factors.
Stylistics, the study of linguistic factors that place a discourse in context.
The related discipline of semiotics investigates the relationship between signs and what they signify. From the perspective of semiotics, language can be seen as a sign or symbol, with the world as its representation



Language
A language is a system for encoding and decoding information. In its most common use, the term refers to so-called "natural languages" — the forms of communication considered peculiar to humankind. In linguistics the term is extended to refer to the human cognitive facility of creating and using language. Essential to both meanings is the systematic creation and usage of systems of symbols—each referring to linguistic concepts with semantic or logical or otherwise expressive meanings.
The most obvious manifestations are spoken languages such as English or Spoken Chinese. However, there are also written languages and other systems of visual symbols such as sign languages.
Although some other animals make use of quite sophisticated communicative systems, and these are sometimes casually referred to as animal language, none of these are known to make use of all of the properties that linguists use to define language in the strict sense.
When discussed more technically as a general phenomenon then, "language" always implies a particular type of human thought which can be present even when communication is not the result, and this way of thinking is also sometimes treated as indistinguishable from language itself.
In Western Philosophy for example, language has long been closely associated with reason, which is also a uniquely human way of using symbols. In Ancient Greek philosophical terminology, the same word, logos, was used as a term for both language or speech and reason, and the philosopher Thomas Hobbes used the English word "speech" so that it similarly could refer to reason, as will be discussed below.
Definition of Language
Language is common to all humans; we seem to be “hard-wired” for it. Many social scientists and philosophers say it’s this ability to use language symbolically that makes us “human.”
Though it may be a universal human attribute, language is hardly simple. For decades, linguists’ main task was to track and record languages. But, like so many areas of science, the field of linguistics has evolved dramatically over the past 50 years or so.

 a systematic means of communicating by the use of sounds or conventional symbols; "he taught foreign languages"; "the language introduced is ...
 speech: (language) communication by word of mouth; "his speech was garbled"; "he uttered harsh language"; "he recorded the spoken language of the streets"
 lyric: the text of a popular song or musical-comedy number; "his compositions always started with the lyrics"; "he wrote both words and music"; "the song uses colloquial language"
 linguistic process: the cognitive processes involved in producing and understanding linguistic communication; "he didn't have the language to express his feelings"
 the mental faculty or power of vocal communication; "language sets homo sapiens apart from all other animals"
 terminology: a system of words used to name things in a particular discipline; "legal terminology"; "biological nomenclature"; "the language of sociology"

Language is the official peer reviewed journal of the Linguistic Society of America, published since 1925. It is published quarterly and contains articles and reviews on all aspects of linguistics, focusing on the area of theoretical linguistics. Its current editor is Prof. Gregory Carlson (University of Rochester).
Formal language

A formal language is a set of words, i.e. finite strings of letters, symbols, or tokens. The set from which these letters are taken is called the alphabet over which the language is defined. A formal language is often defined by means of a formal grammar (also called its formation rules); accordingly, words that belong to a formal language are sometimes called well-formed words (or well-formed formulas). Formal languages are studied in computer science and linguistics; the field of formal language theory studies the purely syntactical aspects of such languages (that is, their internal structural patterns).
Formal languages are often used as the basis for richer constructs endowed with semantics. In computer science they are used, among other things, for the precise ssdefinition of data formats and the syntax of programming languages. Formal languages play a crucial role in the development of compilers, typically produced by means of a compiler compiler, which may be a single program or may be separated in tools like lexical analyzer generators (e.g. lex), and parser generators (e.g. yacc). Since formal languages alone do not have a semantics, other formal constructs are needed for the formal specification of program semantics. Formal languages are also used in logic and in foundations of mathematics to represent the syntax of formal theories. Logical systems can be seen as a formal language with additional constructs, like proof calculi, which define a consequence relation.[1] "Tarski's definition of truth" in terms of a T-schema for first-order logic is an example of fully interpreted formal language; all its sentences have meanings that make them either true or false.

bahaya ghazwul fikr

Ibarat musim, hujan lebat selalu dimulai dengan gerimis terlebih dulu. Usaha musuh-musuh Islam untuk menghancurkan umat Islam tak pernah kendor.

Tak hanya fisik, ghazwul fikri pun ditempuh. Cara ini dipandang lebih efektif dan murah. Líhatlah, sebelum terjadi pengeboman di JW Marriot dan Ritz Carlton. Bulan sebelumnya kita disuguhkan dengan buku Ilusi Negara Islam. Buku ini menyerang Islam politik.

Buku tersebut diterbitkan atas kerjasama Gerakan Bhineka Tunggal Ika, the Wahid Institute dan Maarif Institute. Buku itu merupakan hasil penelitian yang berlangsung lebih dari dua tahun dan dilakukan oleh LibForAll Foundation. Yang menjadi editor dalam buku itu adalah Gus Dur dan yang menjadi penyelaras bahasanya adalah Mohamad Guntur Romli.

Buku berjudul lengkap Ilusi Negara Islam: Ekspansi Gerakan Islam Transnasional di Indonesia yang menyebutkan PKS sebagai bagian dari gerakan Islam garis keras transnasional. PKS membantah dan mengatakan, para penulis buku itu merupakan antek-antek dari mantan Presiden AS George W Bush.

Dalam kata pengantar buku itu yang ditulis oleh Abdurrahman Wahid (Gus Dur), memaparkan bahwa PKS telah melakukan infiltrasi ke Muhammadiyah pada Muktamar Muhammadiyah Juli 2005 di Malang. Saat itu, para agen kelompok garis keras seperti PKS mendominasi banyak forum dan berhasil memilih beberapa simpatisan gerakan garis keras menjadi Ketua PP Muhammdiyah.

"Dugaan saya, dana riset buku itu didapatan dari Bush. Itu merupakan proyek terakhir Bush sebelum kejatuhannya. Karena Bush memiliki kebijakan perang melawan terorisme," ujar Wasekjen PKS Fahri Hamzah.

Menurut Fahri, tulisan-tulisan yang ada pada buku itu masih mengacu pada framework dunia saat Bus masih jadi Presiden AS. "Padahal kan framework dunia sudah berbeda dan tuduhan-tuduhan tentang PKS itu semuanya palsu. Saat ini dunia sudah mulai tidak terlalu menyoroti isu terorisme, bahkan dunia sudah menilai Bush sebagai penjahat perang," katanya.

Adapun tuduhan terhadap Hizbut Tahrir sebagai kelompok yang membahayakan Indonesia, adalah sebuah kebohongan besar. Hizbut Tahrir dengan perjuangan syariah dan Khilafah justru bertujuan untuk menyelamatkan Indonesia dari keterpurukan akibat Sekularisme, Liberalisme, Kapitalisme dan penjajahan modern di segala bidang.

Menurut Ismail Yusanto, Jurubicara HTI, Liberalisme dan Sekularisme yang selama ini mereka propagandakan itulah yang telah nyata-nyata merusak dan menghancurkan Indonesia. Atas dasar Liberalisme pula, mereka mendukung aliran sesat (Ahmadiyah, Lia Eden, dll), legalisasi aborsi, menolak larangan pornografi dan pornoaksi, mendukung penjualan aset-aset strategis.

“Maka, merekalah yang sesungguhnya harus diwaspadai, karena mereka menghalangi upaya penyelamatan Indonesia dengan syariah, dengan tetap mempertahankan Sekularisme dan penjajahan asing di negeri ini,” tegas Ismail Yusanto.

Dalam masalah Bom di JW Marriot dan Ritz Carlton, HTI Menyerukan kepada semua pihak, khususnya kepolisian dan media massa, untuk bersikap hati-hati menanggapi spekulasi yang mengaitkan bom JW Marriot dan Ritz Carlton ini dengan kelompok, gerakan atau organisasi Islam. Dari sekian kemungkinan, bisa saja peledakan bom itu sengaja dilakukan oleh orang atau kelompok tertentu untuk mengacaukan situasi keamanan di masyarakat dan negara ini demi mendiskreditkan organisasi Islam.

Setelah pelaku bom bunuh diri di Hotel JW Marriott Jakarta, Jumat (17/7), berhasil diungkap Kepolisian. Kontroversi teror bom masih mengganggu benak umat muslim Indonesia. Kedekatan pelaku dengan Noordin M Top dan Jamaah Islamiyah (JI) seolah-olah kembali menggiring opini publik jika Islam di Indonesia identik dengan kekerasan meski tanpa bukti dan fakta yang nyata. Sehingga menyebabkan antipati publik terhadap Islam. Padahal, selama ini Islam selalu hidup damai, terbuka dan toleran.

Yang menarik adalah kesimpulan AM Hendropriyono. Mantan Kepala BIN ini mengatakan bahwa kaum ekstrimis Islam yg terlibat teroris mancanegara berasal dari dua aliran dalam agama Islam yaitu Wahabi dan Ikhwanul Muslimin.

Statemen AM Hendropriyono mengundang protes keras dari kalangan tertentu. “Terorisme ada di Indonesia karena suasana kondusif untuk benih-benih terorisme. Selama anasir-anasir tsb tidak dibersihkan dari bumi nusantara maka terorisme tidak akan hilang,” katanya pada Sabili yang mewawancarai Hendropriyono di Yogyakarta.

Siapakah Wahabi?
Sebagian ulama yang adil sesungguhnya menyebutkan bahwa Syekh Muhammad bin Abdul Wahab adalah salah seorang mujaddid (pembaharu) abad dua belas Hijriyah. Mereka menulis buku-buku tentang beliau. Di antara para pengarang yang menulis buku tentang Muhammad bin Abdul Wahab adalah Syekh Ali Thanthawi. Beliau menulis buku tentang Silsilah Tokoh-tokoh Sejarah, di antaranya terdapat Syekh Muhammad bin Abdul Wahab dan Ahmad bin 'Irfan.

Dalam buku tersebut beliau menyebutkan, sebagai ajaran akidah tauhid, apa yang disampaikan Muhammad bin Abdul Wahab menyebar ke seluruh dunia Islam melalui jamaah haji yang pulang dari tanah suci. Menguatnya persatuan akidah ini ternyata membawa dampak lain pada kekuatan kolonial yang saat itu berkuasa di dunia Islam. Akhirnya, Inggris ajaran akidah tauhid ini sebagai bentuk baru persatuan dunia Islam yang akan melahirkan ancaman pada kolonial. Berikutnya, kekuatan kolonial membentuk kelompok Murtaziqah (orang-orang bayaran) untuk mencemarkan nama baik dakwah. Maka mereka pun menuduh setiap muwahhid, para penyeru tauhid, dengan kata Wahabi.

Pasca 9/11, sebuah buku diterbitkan oleh di AS dengan judul Wahabi Islam, ditulis seorang orientalis yang merupakan mahasiswa S3 John Esposito. Penulisnya mengatakan bahwa ia tertarik untuk meneliti Wahabisme ketika saat mengambil kuliah Islamologi dan membaca tulisan Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab, namun tidak menemukan elemen-elemen yang menganjurkan kekerasan. Dalam salah satu babnya, ia mengatakan bahwa pengidentikan Wahabi dengan kekerasan dimulai oleh Inggris di India tahun 1800-an saat terjadi revolusi Muslim. Sejarah menyatakan tidak ada kaitan antara gerakan tersebut dan Wahabisme.

Wahabi sendiri sebenarnya suatu yang kontroversial. Orang awam cenderung mengaitkan Wahabi dengan Islam yang “bertentangan” dengan arus besar (mainstream).

Apa yang dimaksud dengan Wahabi? Bukankah dalam berbagai kesempatan Hendropriyono mengaku bahwa dirinya berasal dari Muhammadiyah. Seperti kita ketahui, Muhammadiyah adalah gerakan Wahabi yang gencar memerangi TBC (Tachayul, Bidah dan Churafat, dalam ejaan lama). “Yang saya maksud adalah Wahabi radikal,” katanya.

Terminologi Wahabi yang sering dilontarkan seringkali menambah kisruh suasana. Ulama-ulama Saudi yang selalu dicap Wahabi oleh sebagian orang, dalam sejarahnya selalu mengecam dan mengritik al-Qaidah, bahkan sebelum pemboman Tanzania.

Taliban selalu dikaitkan dengan Wahabisme. Padahal jika seseorang benar-benar mengikuti ulama Saudi, dampaknya sebenarnya mengejutkan mereka yang selalu berpikir negatif tentang Wahabi. Karena, seluruh ulama terkemuka di Saudi sepakat tindakan teror hukumnya haram. Memberontak bahkan mendemo pemerintah, atau misalnya menebarkan aib pemimpin, juga haram.

Mereka tidak suka mencaci maki pemerintah. Kritikan akan dilakukan secara tertutup (kalau bisa empat mata) dengan penguasa. Ulama mengharamkan melakukan pemberontakan (bughat) selama penguasa masih Muslim.

Suasana semakin kisruh ketika Ikhwanul Muslimin (IM) juga disatukan dalam barisan. IM didirikan untuk untuk mengembalikan kekhalifahan setelah runtuhnya kekhalifahan Usmani Turki lepas Perang Dunia I. Ikhwanul Muslimin sendiri tidak terlepas dari proses radikalisasi. Ada beberapa faktor. Salah satu faktor bersifat internal, karena ada beberapa elemen yang memang memilih jalur keras. Di IM, pemikiran radikal ini diwakili oleh misalnya Sayyid Quthb. Faktor eksternal, suatu faktor yang lebih dominan, adalah reaksi politik dari pemerintah yang cenderung menutup akses politik lawan mereka, termasuk IM.

Faktor ini sebenarnya lebih mendorong radikalisasi. Kasus populer adalah Aljazair. Kekerasan muncul saat hasil pemilu tahun 1990an yang dimenangkan secara mutlak oleh partai Islam (FIS) dibatalkan oleh pemerintah berkuasa dan didukung oleh Barat, dan partai tersebut dinyatakan ilegal. Demikian juga di Iran saat Shah Iran.

Faktor penting yang tak bisa dikesampingkan adalah, Afghanistan. Negara ini ketika berperang dengan Komunis Soviet dijadikan sebagai laboratorium jihad oleh berbagai elemen Islam. Apalagi Amerika berada di pihak yang membantu mujahidin.

Namun setelah kemenangan itu diraih, mujahidin banyak yang secara psikologis masih merasa berada di medan jihad. Suasana tempur tak bisa hilang begitu saja. Apalagi negara Barat berbalik menganggap Islam sebagai ancaman. Provokasi dan kezaliman muncul di negeri-negeri Islam. Maka radikalisme itu seolah mendapatkan tempat dan pupuk yang maksimal. Dan setelah itu, target dialihkan pada umat Islam yang dinyatakan radikal.

Padahal, sejarah menceritakan pada dunia bahwa radikalisme nampaknya selalu dipelihara, demi kepentingan kolonial yang selalu berganti pemainnya. Jadi lontaran statemen Wahabi memang lebih dahsyat dari bom itu sendiri. (Eman Mulyatman)